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Climate change affects both terrestrial<ref>Diffenbaugh, N. S. and Field, C. B., 2013. Changes in Ecologically Critical Terrestrial Climate Conditions. Science, 341(6145), pp. 486-492. [https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1237123 doi: 10.1126/science.1237123]</ref> and aquatic biomes<ref>Hoegh-Guldberg, O., and Bruno, J. F., 2010. The Impact of Climate Change on the World’s Marine Ecosystem. Science, 328(5985), pp. 1523-1528. [https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1189930 doi: 10.1126/science.1189930]</ref> causing significant effects on ecosystem functions and biodiversity<ref name=":0">Bellard, C., Berteslsmeier, C., Leadley, P., Thuiller, W., and Courchamp, F., 2012. Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity. Ecological Letters, 15(4), pp. 365-377. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01736.x doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01736.x] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/a/a4/Bellard2012.pdf Article pdf]</ref>. Climate change is affecting several key ecological processes and patterns that will have cascading impacts on wildlife and habitat<ref name=":1">Inkley, D. B., Anderson, M. G., Blaustein, A. R., Burkett, V. R., Felzer, B., Griffith, B., Price, J., and Root, T. L., 2004. Global Climate Change and Wildlife in North America. Wildlife Society Technical Review 04-2. The Wildlife Society, Bethesda, MD, 26 pp. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/f/f1/Inkley2004.pdf Report pdf]</ref>. For example, sea-level rise, changes in the timing and duration of growing seasons, and changes in primary production are mainly driven by changes to global environmental variables (e.g., temperature and atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>). Climate-induced changes in the environment ultimately impact wildlife population abundance and distributions.  
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<br />
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Infrastructure Resilience
 
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Infrastructure systems have been major contributors to the growth of the United States. [[wikipedia:Hoover Dam | Hoover Dam]] helped desert regions in the west to bloom. The [[wikipedia:Interstate Highway System  | Interstate Highway System]] spanned the states and opened up the country to growth and provided corridors for trade. As the country grew, new technologies developed, and infrastructures developed around them that are integral to our daily lives. These infrastructures can be vulnerable to a variety of disruptions, including human events, earthquakes, extreme weather events and [[Climate Change Primer | climate change]] impacts. The creation of the President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection (PCCIP) in 1996 <ref name="EO13010">[https://itlaw.fandom.com/wiki/Executive_Order_13010 | Executive Order 13010]. Critical Infrastructure Protection, 61 Fed. Reg., No. 138, July 17, 1996</ref> resulted in the development of a national plan to identify the critical infrastructure sectors and how to identify and reduce their vulnerabilities to natural or deliberate threats. Subsequent extreme natural disasters like Hurricanes [[wikipedia:Hurricane Katrina | Katrina]] and [[wikipedia:Hurricane Sandy | Sandy]] pointed out additional limitations in the resilience of infrastructure due to the interconnected nature of infrastructure systems. Infrastructure cannot be made totally immune to disruptive events, but it can be made more resilient by considering the dependencies and interdependencies within and between systems and by taking a system-of-systems view of the vulnerabilities and threats to them.
 
 
<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 2em 2em;">__TOC__</div>
 
<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 2em 2em;">__TOC__</div>
  
 
'''Related Article(s):'''
 
'''Related Article(s):'''
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*Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources (Coming soon)
 
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*[[Climate Change Primer]]
 
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*[[Downscaled High Resolution Datasets for Climate Change Projections]]
 
  
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*[[Climate Change Primer|Climate Change]]
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*[[Predicting Species Responses to Climate Change with Population Models]]
  
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'''Contributor(s):''' Dr. John Hummel and Dr. Frederic Petit
 
  
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'''Contributor(s):''' Dr. Breanna F. Powers and Dr. Julie A. Heath
  
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'''Key Resources(s):'''
 
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*[https://itlaw.fandom.com/wiki/Executive_Order_13010 President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection (Executive Order 13010)]<ref name="EO13010"/>
 
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*[https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/02/12/presidential-policy-directive-critical-infrastructure-security-and-resil Presidential Policy Directive (PPD-21) – Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience]<ref name="PPD2013">[https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/02/12/presidential-policy-directive-critical-infrastructure-security-and-resil | Presidential Policy Directive – Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience]. The White House Office of the Press Secretary, February 12, 2013.</ref>
 
  
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==Introduction==
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'''Key Resource(s):'''
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Infrastructure systems have always been an important aspect of the United States and signature elements of the country’s growth—examples such as [[wikipedia:Hoover Dam | Hoover Dam]], [[wikipedia:Grand Central Terminal | Grand Central Station]], and the [[wikipedia:Interstate Highway System  | Interstate Highway System]]. As the country grew and evolved, other infrastructure elements took on important aspects of everyday life, such as [[wikipedia: Global Positioning System | Global Positioning System (GPS)]] and the [[wikipedia:World Wide Web | World Wide Web (WWW)]]. Vulnerabilities in these systems were largely taken for granted until terrorist events such as the [https://www.britannica.com/event/Tokyo-subway-attack-of-1995 Tokyo sarin gas subway attacks], the [[wikipedia:1993 World Trade Center bombing | 1993 terrorist bombing of the U.S. World Trade Center]], and [[Wikipedia: Oklahoma City bombing | the bombing of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City]] demonstrated the reality of threats from human elements. The subsequent creation of the President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection (PCCIP) in 1996<ref name="EO13010"/>resulted in the development of a national plan to identify the critical infrastructure sectors and how to identify and reduce their vulnerabilities to natural or deliberate threats. Subsequent extreme natural disasters like Hurricanes [[wikipedia:Hurricane Katrina | Katrina]]  and [[wikipedia:Hurricane Sandy | Sandy]]  pointed out additional limitations in the resilience of infrastructure due to the interconnected nature of infrastructure systems.
 
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In its October 1997 report, the PCCIP<ref name="PCCIP1997">President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection, 1997. Critical Foundations: Protecting America’s Infrastructures. Washington, DC [[Media: PCCIP1997.pdf  | Report pdf]]</ref> defined an infrastructure as “a network of independent, mostly privately owned, man-made systems and processes that function collaboratively and synergistically to produce and distribute a continuous flow of essential goods and services.”
 
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In the original PCCIP assessments considered eight critical infrastructures whose “…incapacity or destruction would have a debilitating impact on our defense and economic security”<ref name="EO13010"/>. The [[wikipedia:United States Department of Homeland Security | U.S. Department of Homeland Security]] has subsequently increased the number of critical infrastructures to the 16 sectors<ref name="CISAcis">U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency, [https://www.cisa.gov/critical-infrastructure-sectors “Critical Infrastructure Sectors”.]</ref>, listed in Table 1, and detailed a plan to strengthen and maintain, secure, functioning, and resilient critical infrastructure.<ref name="PPD2013"/>
 
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{| class="wikitable" style="float:left; text-align: center; margin-right: 20px;"
 
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|+ Table 1. DHS Critical Infrastructure Sectors<ref name= "CISAcis"/>
 
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| Chemical || Commercial Facilities || Communications || Critical<br>Manufacturing
 
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| Dams || Defense Industrial<br>Base || Emergency Services || Energy
 
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|-
 
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| Financial Services || Food and Agriculture || Government Facilities
 
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|| Healthcare and Public<br>Health
 
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|-
 
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| Information Technology|| Nuclear Reactors, Materials,<br>and Waster || Transportation Systems || Water and Wastewater<br>Systems
 
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|}
 
  
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==Analyzing Infrastructure Vulnerabilities==
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*Global climate change and wildlife in North America. Wildlife Society Technical Review 04-2<ref name=":1" />
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Early studies on critical infrastructure vulnerabilities focused on physical threats, and the strategies to mitigate those vulnerabilities focused primarily on providing physical protection with “guns, gates, and guards.” As the array of potential threats expanded to include factors such as cyber, chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear attacks, the vulnerability assessment methodologies evolved and expanded to include the consideration of the dependencies and interdependencies within and between infrastructure assets. The myriad of interdependencies in infrastructure systems can result in a disruption in a component of one infrastructure cascading through a network of dependencies and resulting in the taking down of a larger infrastructure, such as [[wikipedia: Northeast blackout of 2003 | the northeast blackout in August 2003]]. The cause of the blackout was attributed to a software bug in a control room alarm system in Ohio, which made operators unaware of a need to redistribute the electrical load after transmission lines drooped into foliage. Events like this demonstrate that protecting infrastructure from all hazards is impossible. Instead, one must understand the dependencies and interdependencies in infrastructures, and how they differ, so they can be designed to be resilient to disruptions when they inevitably occur.  
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*Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity<ref name=":0" />
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==System View of Infrastructure Resilience==
 
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Numerous definitions can be found for resilience that depends upon the perspective of the problem being addressed, such as material physics, ecosystems, engineering, and psychological well-being, to name just a few. For the study of infrastructure resilience and how it contributes to regional and community resilience, the following definition is used:<ref name="Hummel2013"> Hummel, J. R. and Lewis, L.P., 2013. Analytical Support for Societal and Regional Resilience in Support of National Security. Phalanx, 46(3), pp 10-17, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24911162 | JSTOR]. </ref>
 
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''“Resilience is the ability of an entity—e.g., asset, organization, community, region—to anticipate, resist, absorb, respond to, adapt to, and recover from a disturbance from either natural or man-made events.” ''
 
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Analyses of the resilience of infrastructure should be taken from an integrated systems perspective<ref name="PPD2013"/>of the infrastructure and the community and region being supported. Figure 1 provides a schematic representation of the systems that support resilience<ref name="Hummel2016">Hummel, J.R., 2016.  The Last Word Resilience: Buzz Word or Critical Analytical Issue? Phalanx, 49(3), pp. 60–63, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24910216 | JSTOR]. </ref>. The high-level systems shown in Figure 1 can be expanded to finer scale system as needed. The Governing System in Figure 1 is deliberately '''not''' called a Government System because the intent is to be able to represent governing systems at multiple levels of population granularity—groups, villages, tribes, communities, countries, etc. These groups have different ways in which they organize themselves, and the organizing details may or may not be formalized and may or may not be codified. Organized criminal networks, for example, have strong governing and enforcement mechanisms that members clearly understand, but these mechanisms are not codified in any written form.
 
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[[File: InfrastrFig1.png | thumb | 650px | Figure 1. Schematic Representation of the Interconnected Systems that Contribute to Resilience<ref name="Hummel2016"/>.]] 
 
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The Human Landscape System is often the most overlooked system in resilience assessments of communities and infrastructure, yet it is probably the most important. It represents the actors who are the decision makers, the implementers of plans and activities, and the groups in the general population that will be impacted by the plans and the external forces that can disrupt the community <ref name="CIP2016"> Hummel, J.R. and Schneider, J.L., 2016. The Human Landscape – The Functional Bridge between the Physical, Economic, and Social Elements of Community Resilience. Center for Infrastructure Protection and Homeland Security Report. [[Media:Hummel2016.pdf  | Report pdf]]</ref>. The Human Landscape is also the system where the measures of effectiveness of resilience activities are assessed. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the efforts to reduce the spread of the virus depended upon the collective behaviors of people to shelter in place, practice social distancing, and wear facial masks in public. The basic measures of the effectiveness of the efforts to control the spread of the virus were the number of cases of infection hospital strain and lives lost.
 
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The Natural Environment system in Figure 1 consists of the terrain, air, ocean, and space environments where the infrastructure and community systems are located and operated. The natural environment can be a driver for where an infrastructure is located and will be the source of the natural forces to which it must respond.
 
  
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==Assessing and Mitigating Climate Impacts on Infrastructure==
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==Introduction==
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The DHS Regional Resiliency Assessment Program<ref name="CISArrap">U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency, [https://www.cisa.gov/regional-resiliency-assessment-program | “Regional Resilience Assessment Program”.]</ref> (RRAP) has conducted analyses of the vulnerabilities of infrastructure to a variety of disruptions, including earthquakes, climate impacts, and extreme weather events. These assessments utilize a variety of models and tools in the resiliency assessments, depending upon the context of the study.
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[[File:PowersFig1.png|thumb|900px|left | Figure 1. The predicted extinction risk (by percentage with 95% CIs) from climate change by different regions, colors represent a gradient from least to most extinction risks (green to red) based upon the number of relevant studies (n). Figure is from Urban (2015)<ref name=":2" />. Reprinted with permission from AAAS. Any use of this figure requires the prior written permission of AAAS]]
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For example, an RRAP study done in the Casco Bay Region of Maine examined the disruptions to infrastructure from projections of coastal flooding triggered by sea level rise and heavy precipitation. In that study, inundation models driven by sea level and precipitation projections generated areas of flooding in the Casco Bay area. Overlays of the existing infrastructure elements were then used to identify the locations of electric power assets that could be disrupted by the projected flooding.
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Global climate change will affect ecosystem functions and cycles such as nutrient, hydraulic, and carbon cycles, changing aspects of environmental conditions such as temperature, soil moisture, and precipitation<ref>Davidson, E. A. and Janssens, I. A., 2006. Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change. Nature, 440, pp. 165-173.[https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04514 doi: 10.1038/nature04514]</ref><ref>Melillo, J. M., McGuire, A. D., Kicklighter, D. W., Moore, B., Vorosmarty, C. J., and Schloss, A. L., 1993. Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production. Nature, 363, pp. 234-240. [https://doi.org/10.1038/363234a0 doi: 10.1038/363234a0]</ref>. Wildlife species are adapted to their environments and changes to the environment and habitat conditions will mediate effects, either directly or indirectly, on species survival, fecundity and ultimately population persistence<ref>Alig, R. J., Technical Coordinator, 2011. Effects of Climate Change on Natural Resources and Communities: A Compendium of Briefing Papers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, General Technical Report, [https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/37513 PNW-GTR-837], Portland, OR, 169p. [https://doi.org/10.2737/PNW-GTR-837 doi:10.2737/PNW-GTR-837] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/f/f2/Pnwgtr837.pdf Report pdf]</ref><ref>Acevedo-Whitehouse, K., and Duffus, A. L. J., 2009. Effects of environmental change on wildlife health. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1534), pp. 3429-3438. [https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0128 doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0128]</ref><ref>Milligan, S. R., Holt, W. V., and Lloyd, R., 2009. Impacts of climate change and environmental factors on reproduction and development in wildlife. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1534), pp. 3313-3319. [https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0175 doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0175] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/a/ad/Milligan2009.pdf Article pdf]</ref>. The ability to adapt to changing habitat conditions as a result of climate change will differ across individual species and between populations. Some wildlife species may be more vulnerable to climate change than other species (Figure 1). Vulnerability is often linked to particular life-history traits (e.g., specialized habitat needs or limited dispersal abilities, see Pacifici et al. 2015P<ref>Pacifici, M., Foden, W., and Visconti, P., 2015. Assessing species vulnerability to climate change. Nature Climate Change 5, pp. 215-225. [https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2448 doi: 10.1038/nclimate2448]</ref> for a review on species vulnerability to climate change) or genetic composition. For example, grassland birds may be more vulnerable to changing climate than forest birds as forests can buffer change more so than grasslands<ref>Jarzyna, M. A., Zuckerberg, B., Finley, A. O., and Porter, W. F., 2016. Synergistic effects of climate change and land cover: grassland birds are more vulnerable to climate change. Landscape Ecology, 31(10), pp. 2275-2290. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-016-0399-1 doi: 10.1007/s10980-016-0399-1]</ref>. Projected changes in the climate will generally have adverse effects of wildlife populations<ref>IPCC, 2001. Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report. A Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. R.T. Watson and the Core Writing Team (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, and New York, NY, USA, 398p. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/5/56/IPCC2001.pdf Report pdf]</ref>, though there are some species coping with climate change or benefitting from environmental change. For example, American kestrels (Falco sparverius) have shifted their breeding phenology to earlier in the year and may now raise two broods of young within a breeding season<ref>Smith, S. H., Steenhof, K., McClure, C. J. W., and Heath, J. A. 2017. Earlier nesting by generalist predatory bird is associated with human responses to climate change. Journal of Animal Ecology, 86(1), pp. 98-107. [https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.12604 doi: 10.1111/1365-2656.12604] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/5/5d/Smith2017.pdf Article pdf]</ref>.  
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[[File: InfrastrFig2.png | left | thumb | 750px | Figure 2. Potential Impacts from Flooding of Electric Assets in the Casco Bay Region of Maine.]].
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[[File:PowersFig2.png|thumb|900px|right| Figure 2. Conceptual diagram showing how increased water temperatures and pCO₂ (partial pressure of carbon dioxide) affect the early life stages of fish. Where arrow direction indicated increasing rate ( ↑ ), decreasing rate ( ↓ ), or both directions depending on other environmental variables ( ↕️ ).  Figure is from Pankhurst and Munday (2011)<ref name=":4" />.]]
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In California, an integrated water system was developed in the second half of the 20th century, the [[wikipedia:California State Water Project | California State Water Project (SWP)]], to collect and store water from the northern  portion of the state and deliver it to communities in the central and southern regions of the state. The SWP was developed based on the climatic conditions of the time and the locations of the dams, reservoirs, canals, and aqueduct were selected based on the historic precipitation patterns of the mid-20th century. The effectiveness of the SWP to continue to collect and deliver water under projected climate conditions has been studied by combining high-resolution climate projections and overlaying the results against the SWP elements. The projections of 21st mid-century and end-of-century climate conditions<ref name="Reich2018"> Reich, K.D., Berg, N., Walton D.B., Schwartz, M., Sun, F., Huang, X., and Hall, A., 2018. “Climate Change in the Sierra Nevada: California’s Water Future. UCLA (University of California at Los Angeles) Center for Climate Science. [[Media: Reich2018.pdf | Report pdf]]</ref> indicate changes in the timing of precipitation in California and how it falls (rain or snow). The changes in timing indicate that more of the precipitation may fall earlier in the year and in the form of rain, when the existing SWP is least able to collect and store the water because the reservoirs are required to have lower storage levels for flood control purposes. This could result in a requirement for significant investment in new reservoirs at new locations better able to capture and store the precipitation.
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==The influence of climate change on wildlife and habitats==
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The [[wikipedia: 2021 Texas power crisis | 2021 power crisis in Texas]] pointed to the importance of the role of the natural environment in energy system planning. Energy grids are a combination of numerous nodes and links and disruptions in any component can potentially cascade through the system. Energy planning in Texas has traditionally considered only historical environmental factors when planning for future energy needs in terms of estimating future energy loads and did not include the consideration of extreme weather events—hot or cold—in planning. The extreme cold weather event resulted in two significant issues for the energy planners. First, many natural gas wells and pipelines were not winterized and failed or shutdown, depriving the electrical generating facilities of the natural gas to power the facilities. Second, it takes far more energy to warm households up from near freezing temperatures than it does to cool them down from a summer heat wave, increasing the demand load on the electric grid. Tools such EPfAST <ref name="Portante2011"> Portante, E.C., Craig B.A., Talaber Malone l., Kavicky, J., Folga S.F., and Cedres S., 2011. EPfast: A model for simulating uncontrolled islanding in large power systems. Proceedings of the 2011 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC), pp. 1758-1769. [https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6147891 | doi: 10.1109/WSC.2011.6147891]</ref> and NGFast <ref name="Portante2017"> Portante, E. C., Kavicky J.A., Craig B.A., Talaber L.E., and Folga, S.M., 2017. Modeling Electric Power and Natural Gas System Interdependencies. Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 23(4), 04017035 [https://ascelibrary.org/doi/full/10.1061/%28ASCE%29IS.1943-555X.0000395 | 10.1061/(ASCE)IS.1943-555X.0000395] [[Media:Portante2017.pdf | Article pdf]] </ref> can be used to study integrated electric power and natural gas system interdependencies.
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Climate change effects on wildlife include increases and changes in disease and pathogens distribution, patterns, and outbreaks in wildlife<ref>Bradley, B. A., Wilcove, D. S., and Oppenheimer, M., 2010. Climate change increases risk of plant invasion in the Eastern United States. Biological Invasions, 12, pp.1855-1872. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-009-9597-y doi: 10.1007/s10530-009-9597-y]</ref><ref>Cudmore, T. J., Björklund, N., Carroll, A. L., and Lindgren, B. S., 2010. Climate change and the range expansion of an aggressive bark beetle: evidence of higher beetle reproduction in naïve host tree populations. Journal of Applied Ecology, 47(5), pp. 1036-1043. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01848.x doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01848.x] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/b/b3/Cudmore2010.pdf Article pdf]</ref><ref>Price, S. J., Leung, W. T., Owen, C. J., Puschendorf, R., Sergeant, C., Cunningham, A. A., Balloux, F., Garner, T. W., and Nichols, R. A., 2019. Effects of historic and projected climate change on the range and impacts of an emerging wildlife disease. Global Change Biology, 25(8), pp. 2648-2660. [https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14651 doi: 10.1111/gcb.14651]</ref>; changes in range distributions and shifts in latitudinal and elevational gradients; changes in phenology or the timing of life cycle events that may create phenological mismatches<ref>Renner, S. S., and Zohner, C. M., 2018. Climate Change and Phenological Mismatch in Trophic Interactions Among Plants, Insects, and Vertebrates. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 49, pp. 165-182. [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110617-062535 doi: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110617-062535]</ref>; and extinction or population reduction<ref name=":2">Urban, M. C., 2015. Accelerating extinction risk from climate change. Science, 348(6234), pp. 571-573. [https://doi.org/ 10.1126/science.aaa4984 doi: 10.1126/science.aaa4984] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/1/15/Urban2015.pdf Article pdf]</ref>. The effects of climate change across a species’ range will most likely not be homogenous, meaning it can vary substantially, especially if a species’ range spans across different continents as exhibited by many migratory birds. Other changes in habitat include shifting vegetation (i.e., tree-lines are shifting to higher elevations), changes in nutrients in plants, earlier snowmelt and run-off, increase in invasive species, warming of streams and rivers, reduction or degradation of habitat (i.e., glacial melt), and an increase in large wildfires<ref>Barbero, R., Abatzoglou, J. T., Larkin, N. K., Kolden, C. A., and Stocks, B., 2015. Climate change presents increased potential for very large fires in the contiguous United States. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 24(7), pp. 892-899. [https://doi.org/10.1071/WF150830128 doi: 10.1071/WF150830128] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/0/08/Barbero2015.pdf Article pdf]</ref>and droughts<ref>Schlaepfer, D. R., Bradford, J. B., Lauenroth, W. K., Munson, S. M., Tietjen, B., Hall, S. A., Wilson, S. D., Duniway, M. C., Jia, G., Pyke, D. A., Lkhagva, A., and Jamiyansharav, K., 2017. Climate change reduces extent of temperate drylands and intensifies drought in deep soils. Nature Communications, 8, pp. 14196. [https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms14196 doi: 10.1038/ncomms14196]</ref>.
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In many coastal areas of the country, transportation systems are having to contend with disruptions from storm surges and high-tide flooding <ref name="Toolkit2021"> U.S. Federal Government, 2021. [https://toolkit.climate.gov/topics/coastal-flood-risk/shallow-coastal-flooding-nuisance-flooding | High-Tide Flooding. U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit.]</ref>, which occurs when local sea level rises above a given threshold in the absence of storm surge or riverine flooding. This type of flooding is occurring on a regular basis along portions of the U.S. east coast and portions of the south Florida coast and is expected to worsen as sea levels rise. In south Florida, the problem is made worse because much of the area sits on porous limestone which allows the ocean to seep up from the ground – meaning that residents face the climate impacts from storm surges from the sea and rising ground waters from below. The intrusion of ocean water into the aquifers can impact the availability of potable water from aquifers as well as reduce the ability of the ground to absorb runoff, so floodwaters will remain longer<ref name="Mazzei2021"> A 20-Foot Sea Wall? Miami Faces the Hard Choices of Climate Change, New York Times. [https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/02/us/miami-fl-seawall-hurricanes.html | Article]</ref>.
 
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In developing mitigation strategies for [[Climate Change Primer | climate change]] impacts, infrastructure developers look at ways to protect or retrofit existing systems and how to develop new systems that take into account potential [[Climate Change Primer | climate change]] impacts. As an example, the predictions of higher summer temperatures from [[Climate Change Primer | climate change]] can mean that the operating ranges for heat, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems may change and require new designs for such systems. These changes may also result in changes in building codes in different areas<ref name="CCA">Ministry of Environment of Denmark/Environmental Protection Agency. [https://en.klimatilpasning.dk/sectors/buildings/climate-change-impact-on-buildings/ | Climate Change Adaptation, Climate Change Impact on Buildings and Constructions]</ref><ref name="Enker2020">Enker, R.A., and Morrison G.M., 2020. The potential contribution of building codes to climate change response policies for the built environment. Energy Efficiency, 13, pp. 789-807. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-020-09871-7 | doi:10.1007/s12053-020-09871-7]</ref><ref name="Myers2020"> Myers, A., 2020. Building Codes: A Powerful yet Underused Climate Policy that Could Save Billions. Forbes. [https://www.forbes.com/sites/energyinnovation/2020/12/02/a-powerful-yet-underused-climate-tool-building-codes/?sh=363a2c1d978c | Article]</ref>.
 
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[[wikipedia:Hurricane Sandy | Hurricane Sandy]]  provided a number of critical lessons for infrastructure developers. One major lesson learned was that basements in building should not be used for any back-up or critical systems – power, computers, or telecommunications. Many of the hospitals in New York City lost power because their reserve generators were in basements which flooded. Another one was that waterproof doors should be installed at entrances to subway stations.
 
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One of the major challenges facing developers is what environmental conditions should they build for. The majority of building codes are based on analyses based on historical environmental conditions and are not representative of current conditions.
 
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The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has the responsibility to update floodplain maps every five years. These maps are used to identify flood prone areas and locations where flood insurance is required. However, it was estimated in early 2020 that only one-third of nation’s 3.5 million miles of streams and 46% of shoreline have had maps generated<ref name="ASFPM2020"> Association of State Floodplain Managers. 2020. Flood Mapping for the Nation: A Cost Analysis for Completing and Maintaining the Nation’s NFIP Flood Map Inventory. Madison, WI. [[Media:ASFPM2020.pdf | Report pdf]]</ref>. In addition, climate projections are pointing towards more frequent severe precipitation events and in urban areas where developments are changing runoff patterns, the chances for flooding events may increase.
 
  
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==Climate Change and National Security==
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Although climate change effects on wildlife often are linked to species-specific traits, there are general impacts associated with taxonomic groups<ref name=":1" />. For fish it can affect reproduction<ref name=":4">Pankhurst, N. W., and Munday, P. L., 2011. Effects of climate change on fish reproduction and early life history stages. Marine and Freshwater Research, 62(9), pp. 1015-1026. [https://doi.org/10.1071/MF10269 doi: 10.1071/MF10269] [[Special:FilePath/Pankhurst2011.pdf| Article pdf]]</ref>, growth, and recruitment<ref name=":3">Lynch, A. J., Myers, B. J. E., Chu, C., Eby, L. A., Falke, J. A., Kovach, R. P., Krabbenhoft, T. J., Kwak, T. J., Lyons, J., Paukert, C. P., and Whitney, J. E., 2016. Climate Change Effects on North American Inland Fish Populations and Assemblages. Fisheries, 41(7), pp. 346-361. [https://doi.org/10.1080/03632415.2016.1186016 doi: 10.1080/03632415.2016.1186016]</ref>(Figure 2). Cold-water fish such as inland North American species are highly affected with the warming of streams and rivers<ref name=":3" />. Amphibians are highly sensitive to their environment and changes in temperature and moisture can affect development, range, abundance, and phenology<ref>Blaustein, A.R., Walls, S.C., Bancroft, B.A., Lawler, J.J., Searle, C.L., and Gervasi, S.S., 2010. Direct and Indirect Effects of Climate Change on Amphibian Populations. Diversity, 2(2), pp. 281-313.[https://doi.org/10.3390/d2020281 doi: 10.3390/d2020281] [[Media:Blaustein 2010.pdf | Article pdf]]</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>Ficetola, G. F., and Maiorano, L., 2016. Contrasting effects of temperature and precipitation change on amphibian phenology, abundance and performance. Oecologia, 181(3), pp. 683-693. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-016-3610-9 doi: 10.1007/s00442-016-3610-9]</ref>. In reptiles, climate change effects can alter thermoregulation patterns, affect female reproduction and in some species, change sex ratios with increasing temperature<ref name=":1" />. Furthermore, for many bird species the timing of migration and other phenological events are affected by climate change<ref>Crick, H. Q. P., 2004. The impact of climate change on birds. Ibis, 146(s1), pp. 48-56. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00327.x doi: 10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00327.x] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/c/c9/Crick2004.pdf Article pdf]</ref>. Range shifts, growth size, and survival are linked to climate change for mammals<ref name=":1" />. Arctic marine mammals are closely linked to sea ice dynamics and a changing climate will affect these dynamics<ref>Kovacs, K. M., Lydersen, C., Overland, J. E., and Moore, S. E., 2011. Impacts of changing sea-ice conditions on Arctic marine mammals. Marine Biodiversity, 41, pp. 81-194. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-010-0061-0 doi: 10.1007/s12526-010-0061-0]</ref>. Therefore, it is increasingly important for conservation and management plans to consider the effects of climate change on wildlife and habitat for the geographic location<ref>Mawdsley, J. R., O’Malley, R., and Ojima, D. S. 2009. A Review of Climate-Change Adaptations Strategies For Wildlife Management and Biodiversity Conservation. Conservation Biology, 23(5), pp. 1080-1089. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01264.x doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01264.x]</ref>.
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The CNA Military Advisory Board, a group of retired three- and four-star military officers, stated in 2007<ref name="CNA2007"> CNA Military Advisory Board, 2007. National Security and the Threat of Climate Change. CNA Corporation, Arlington, VA. [[Media:CNA2007.pdf | Report pdf]] </ref> and reaffirmed in 2014<ref name="CNA2014">CNA Military Advisory Board, 2014. National Security and the Accelerating Risks of Climate Change. CNA Corporation, Arlington, VA. [[Media:CNA2014.pdf | Report pdf]]</ref> that [[Climate Change Primer | climate change]] will impact U.S. national security interests by increasing the chances for conflict around the world and by threatening U.S. military facilities. These assessments were also noted in a report from the National Intelligence Council in 2008<ref name="NIC2008"> National Intelligence Council, 2008. Global Trends 2025: A Transformed World. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC [[Media: GlobalTrends2008.pdf | Report pdf]]</ref>.  As an example, a prolonged drought that hit the Mediterranean area near Syria from 2006 to 2011 is now felt to have been the precursor of factors that led to the civil war in Syria. As crops were destroyed, rural residents moved to the cities where tensions over lack of food and jobs ultimately triggered the political tensions that led to the Syrian civil war<ref name="Polk2013"> Polk, W. R., 2013. Understanding Syria: From Pre-Civil War to Post-Assad. The Atlantic.  [https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/12/understanding-syria-from-pre-civil-war-to-post-assad/281989/ | Article]</ref>.
 
−
The Department of Defense (DoD) conducted a survey in 2018<ref name="SLVAS2018"> Department of Defense, 2018. Climate-Related risk to DoD Infrastructure Initial Vulnerability Assessment Survey (SLVAS) Report. Office of the Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics. [[Media: SLVAS2018.pdf | Report pdf]]</ref> to determine which DoD facilities have experienced negative effects from past extreme weather events in order to identify facilities that might be vulnerable to future extreme weather event. The impact of extreme weather events on military operations was demonstrated in October 2018 when Hurricane Michael, a Category 5 hurricane, devastated Tyndall AFB, damaging or destroying 95% of the base’s 1,300 structures and forcing the primary support missions to be relocated to other military installations. Tyndall AFB is home to two F-22 fighter squadrons, and it was estimated that about 10% of the U.S. F-22 inventory was damaged or destroyed by Hurricane Michael<ref name="Panda2018"> Panda, A., 2018. Nearly 20 Percent of the US F-22 Inventory Was Damaged or Destroyed in Hurricane Michael. The Diplomat. [https://thediplomat.com/2018/10/nearly-10-percent-of-the-us-f-22-inventory-was-damaged-or-destroyed-in-hurricane-michael/ | Article]</ref>. In addition to the U.S.-based facilities, DoD operates a number of facilities around the world. Some of them involve unique facilities located at strategic locations. One example is [[Wikipedia:Diego Garcia | Diego Garcia]], an island in the British Indian Ocean Territory that is part of Chagos Archipelago. Diego Garcia is home to U.S. naval and air facilities that provide critical force projection activities in the Asia Pacific region.  Analyses of the impact of [[Climate Change Primer | climate change]] indicate that many Pacific atolls could be rendered uninhabitable by sea level rise and wave-driven flooding<ref name="Storlazzi2018"> Storlazzi, C.D., Gingerich, S.B., van Dongeren, A., Cheriton, O.M., Swarzenski, P. W., Quataert, E., Voss, C. I., Field, D. W., Annamalai, H., Piniak, G. A., and McCall, R., 2018. Most atolls will be uninhabitable by the mid-21st century because of sea-level rise exacerbating wave-driven flooding. Science Advances, 4(4). [https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aap9741| doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aap9741] [[Media: Storlazzi2018.pdf | Article pdf]]</ref>.
 
−
U.S. based military facilities are already facing [[Climate Change Primer | climate change]] impacts. In 2019, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) released a report to Congress detailing how DoD installation managers need to assess the risks from climate change to their facilities and to incorporate those risks into the master plans for the facilities (GAO, 2019)<ref name="gao2019"> United States Government Accountability Office, 2019. Climate Resilience, DOD Needs to Assess Risk and Provide Guidance on Use of Climate projections in Installation Master Plans and Facilities Designs, GAO-19-453. [[Media: gao2019.pdf | Report pdf]]</ref>.
 
  
−
Naval Station Norfolk in Virginia has been on the front line of [[Climate Change Primer | climate change]] impacts, having dealt with high tide flooding for a number of years in which low-lying areas are flooded during high tides. This problem is not unique to the Norfolk area but is being felt in a number of areas along the east coast of the United States. The majority of the Norfolk area is under 10 feet (ft) above sea level and the worst-case scenario estimates that sea level rise by the end of the century could be on the order of 6 ft. Under these conditions, portions of the Norfolk area could experience flooding during any high tide. This flooding could result in land loss as the flooded area become part of the tidal zone. The high sea level could also expose previously unexposed areas to storm surge flooding<ref name="kramer2016"> Kramer, D., 2016. Norfolk: A case study in sea-level rise. Physics Today, 69(5), pp. 22-25. [https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.3163 | doi: 10.1063/PT.3.3163] [[Media:kramer2016.pdf | Article pdf]]</ref>.
 
 
==References==
 
==References==
 
<references />
 
<references />
 +
 
==See Also==
 
==See Also==
−
*U.S. Department of Defense, 2019. [[Media:DoD2019.pdf  | Report on Effects of a Changing Climate to the Department of Defense]]
 
−
* Naval Facilities Engineering Command, 2017. [[Media: NAVFACHandbook2017.pdf | Climate Change Planning Handbook Installation Adaptation and Resilience]]
 
−
*[https://www.serdp-estcp.org/Program-Areas/Resource-Conservation-and-Resiliency/Infrastructure-Resiliency/(language)/eng-US Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP) and Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) – Infrastructure Resiliency]
 
−
*U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2012. [[Media: Climate Change Adaptation Plan | Climate Change Adaptation Roadmap]]
 

Latest revision as of 14:07, 25 April 2022

Climate change affects both terrestrial[1] and aquatic biomes[2] causing significant effects on ecosystem functions and biodiversity[3]. Climate change is affecting several key ecological processes and patterns that will have cascading impacts on wildlife and habitat[4]. For example, sea-level rise, changes in the timing and duration of growing seasons, and changes in primary production are mainly driven by changes to global environmental variables (e.g., temperature and atmospheric CO2). Climate-induced changes in the environment ultimately impact wildlife population abundance and distributions.

Related Article(s):


Contributor(s): Dr. Breanna F. Powers and Dr. Julie A. Heath


Key Resource(s):

  • Global climate change and wildlife in North America. Wildlife Society Technical Review 04-2[4]
  • Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity[3]

Introduction

Figure 1. The predicted extinction risk (by percentage with 95% CIs) from climate change by different regions, colors represent a gradient from least to most extinction risks (green to red) based upon the number of relevant studies (n). Figure is from Urban (2015)[5]. Reprinted with permission from AAAS. Any use of this figure requires the prior written permission of AAAS

Global climate change will affect ecosystem functions and cycles such as nutrient, hydraulic, and carbon cycles, changing aspects of environmental conditions such as temperature, soil moisture, and precipitation[6][7]. Wildlife species are adapted to their environments and changes to the environment and habitat conditions will mediate effects, either directly or indirectly, on species survival, fecundity and ultimately population persistence[8][9][10]. The ability to adapt to changing habitat conditions as a result of climate change will differ across individual species and between populations. Some wildlife species may be more vulnerable to climate change than other species (Figure 1). Vulnerability is often linked to particular life-history traits (e.g., specialized habitat needs or limited dispersal abilities, see Pacifici et al. 2015P[11] for a review on species vulnerability to climate change) or genetic composition. For example, grassland birds may be more vulnerable to changing climate than forest birds as forests can buffer change more so than grasslands[12]. Projected changes in the climate will generally have adverse effects of wildlife populations[13], though there are some species coping with climate change or benefitting from environmental change. For example, American kestrels (Falco sparverius) have shifted their breeding phenology to earlier in the year and may now raise two broods of young within a breeding season[14].

Figure 2. Conceptual diagram showing how increased water temperatures and pCO₂ (partial pressure of carbon dioxide) affect the early life stages of fish. Where arrow direction indicated increasing rate ( ↑ ), decreasing rate ( ↓ ), or both directions depending on other environmental variables ( ↕️ ). Figure is from Pankhurst and Munday (2011)[15].

The influence of climate change on wildlife and habitats

Climate change effects on wildlife include increases and changes in disease and pathogens distribution, patterns, and outbreaks in wildlife[16][17][18]; changes in range distributions and shifts in latitudinal and elevational gradients; changes in phenology or the timing of life cycle events that may create phenological mismatches[19]; and extinction or population reduction[5]. The effects of climate change across a species’ range will most likely not be homogenous, meaning it can vary substantially, especially if a species’ range spans across different continents as exhibited by many migratory birds. Other changes in habitat include shifting vegetation (i.e., tree-lines are shifting to higher elevations), changes in nutrients in plants, earlier snowmelt and run-off, increase in invasive species, warming of streams and rivers, reduction or degradation of habitat (i.e., glacial melt), and an increase in large wildfires[20]and droughts[21].

Although climate change effects on wildlife often are linked to species-specific traits, there are general impacts associated with taxonomic groups[4]. For fish it can affect reproduction[15], growth, and recruitment[22](Figure 2). Cold-water fish such as inland North American species are highly affected with the warming of streams and rivers[22]. Amphibians are highly sensitive to their environment and changes in temperature and moisture can affect development, range, abundance, and phenology[23][4][24]. In reptiles, climate change effects can alter thermoregulation patterns, affect female reproduction and in some species, change sex ratios with increasing temperature[4]. Furthermore, for many bird species the timing of migration and other phenological events are affected by climate change[25]. Range shifts, growth size, and survival are linked to climate change for mammals[4]. Arctic marine mammals are closely linked to sea ice dynamics and a changing climate will affect these dynamics[26]. Therefore, it is increasingly important for conservation and management plans to consider the effects of climate change on wildlife and habitat for the geographic location[27].

References

  1. ^ Diffenbaugh, N. S. and Field, C. B., 2013. Changes in Ecologically Critical Terrestrial Climate Conditions. Science, 341(6145), pp. 486-492. doi: 10.1126/science.1237123
  2. ^ Hoegh-Guldberg, O., and Bruno, J. F., 2010. The Impact of Climate Change on the World’s Marine Ecosystem. Science, 328(5985), pp. 1523-1528. doi: 10.1126/science.1189930
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Bellard, C., Berteslsmeier, C., Leadley, P., Thuiller, W., and Courchamp, F., 2012. Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity. Ecological Letters, 15(4), pp. 365-377. doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01736.x Article pdf
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Inkley, D. B., Anderson, M. G., Blaustein, A. R., Burkett, V. R., Felzer, B., Griffith, B., Price, J., and Root, T. L., 2004. Global Climate Change and Wildlife in North America. Wildlife Society Technical Review 04-2. The Wildlife Society, Bethesda, MD, 26 pp. Report pdf
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Urban, M. C., 2015. Accelerating extinction risk from climate change. Science, 348(6234), pp. 571-573. 10.1126/science.aaa4984 doi: 10.1126/science.aaa4984 Article pdf
  6. ^ Davidson, E. A. and Janssens, I. A., 2006. Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change. Nature, 440, pp. 165-173.doi: 10.1038/nature04514
  7. ^ Melillo, J. M., McGuire, A. D., Kicklighter, D. W., Moore, B., Vorosmarty, C. J., and Schloss, A. L., 1993. Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production. Nature, 363, pp. 234-240. doi: 10.1038/363234a0
  8. ^ Alig, R. J., Technical Coordinator, 2011. Effects of Climate Change on Natural Resources and Communities: A Compendium of Briefing Papers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, General Technical Report, PNW-GTR-837, Portland, OR, 169p. doi:10.2737/PNW-GTR-837 Report pdf
  9. ^ Acevedo-Whitehouse, K., and Duffus, A. L. J., 2009. Effects of environmental change on wildlife health. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1534), pp. 3429-3438. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0128
  10. ^ Milligan, S. R., Holt, W. V., and Lloyd, R., 2009. Impacts of climate change and environmental factors on reproduction and development in wildlife. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1534), pp. 3313-3319. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0175 Article pdf
  11. ^ Pacifici, M., Foden, W., and Visconti, P., 2015. Assessing species vulnerability to climate change. Nature Climate Change 5, pp. 215-225. doi: 10.1038/nclimate2448
  12. ^ Jarzyna, M. A., Zuckerberg, B., Finley, A. O., and Porter, W. F., 2016. Synergistic effects of climate change and land cover: grassland birds are more vulnerable to climate change. Landscape Ecology, 31(10), pp. 2275-2290. doi: 10.1007/s10980-016-0399-1
  13. ^ IPCC, 2001. Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report. A Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. R.T. Watson and the Core Writing Team (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, and New York, NY, USA, 398p. Report pdf
  14. ^ Smith, S. H., Steenhof, K., McClure, C. J. W., and Heath, J. A. 2017. Earlier nesting by generalist predatory bird is associated with human responses to climate change. Journal of Animal Ecology, 86(1), pp. 98-107. doi: 10.1111/1365-2656.12604 Article pdf
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Pankhurst, N. W., and Munday, P. L., 2011. Effects of climate change on fish reproduction and early life history stages. Marine and Freshwater Research, 62(9), pp. 1015-1026. doi: 10.1071/MF10269 Article pdf
  16. ^ Bradley, B. A., Wilcove, D. S., and Oppenheimer, M., 2010. Climate change increases risk of plant invasion in the Eastern United States. Biological Invasions, 12, pp.1855-1872. doi: 10.1007/s10530-009-9597-y
  17. ^ Cudmore, T. J., Björklund, N., Carroll, A. L., and Lindgren, B. S., 2010. Climate change and the range expansion of an aggressive bark beetle: evidence of higher beetle reproduction in naïve host tree populations. Journal of Applied Ecology, 47(5), pp. 1036-1043. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01848.x Article pdf
  18. ^ Price, S. J., Leung, W. T., Owen, C. J., Puschendorf, R., Sergeant, C., Cunningham, A. A., Balloux, F., Garner, T. W., and Nichols, R. A., 2019. Effects of historic and projected climate change on the range and impacts of an emerging wildlife disease. Global Change Biology, 25(8), pp. 2648-2660. doi: 10.1111/gcb.14651
  19. ^ Renner, S. S., and Zohner, C. M., 2018. Climate Change and Phenological Mismatch in Trophic Interactions Among Plants, Insects, and Vertebrates. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 49, pp. 165-182. doi: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110617-062535
  20. ^ Barbero, R., Abatzoglou, J. T., Larkin, N. K., Kolden, C. A., and Stocks, B., 2015. Climate change presents increased potential for very large fires in the contiguous United States. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 24(7), pp. 892-899. doi: 10.1071/WF150830128 Article pdf
  21. ^ Schlaepfer, D. R., Bradford, J. B., Lauenroth, W. K., Munson, S. M., Tietjen, B., Hall, S. A., Wilson, S. D., Duniway, M. C., Jia, G., Pyke, D. A., Lkhagva, A., and Jamiyansharav, K., 2017. Climate change reduces extent of temperate drylands and intensifies drought in deep soils. Nature Communications, 8, pp. 14196. doi: 10.1038/ncomms14196
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Lynch, A. J., Myers, B. J. E., Chu, C., Eby, L. A., Falke, J. A., Kovach, R. P., Krabbenhoft, T. J., Kwak, T. J., Lyons, J., Paukert, C. P., and Whitney, J. E., 2016. Climate Change Effects on North American Inland Fish Populations and Assemblages. Fisheries, 41(7), pp. 346-361. doi: 10.1080/03632415.2016.1186016
  23. ^ Blaustein, A.R., Walls, S.C., Bancroft, B.A., Lawler, J.J., Searle, C.L., and Gervasi, S.S., 2010. Direct and Indirect Effects of Climate Change on Amphibian Populations. Diversity, 2(2), pp. 281-313.doi: 10.3390/d2020281 Article pdf
  24. ^ Ficetola, G. F., and Maiorano, L., 2016. Contrasting effects of temperature and precipitation change on amphibian phenology, abundance and performance. Oecologia, 181(3), pp. 683-693. doi: 10.1007/s00442-016-3610-9
  25. ^ Crick, H. Q. P., 2004. The impact of climate change on birds. Ibis, 146(s1), pp. 48-56. doi: 10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00327.x Article pdf
  26. ^ Kovacs, K. M., Lydersen, C., Overland, J. E., and Moore, S. E., 2011. Impacts of changing sea-ice conditions on Arctic marine mammals. Marine Biodiversity, 41, pp. 81-194. doi: 10.1007/s12526-010-0061-0
  27. ^ Mawdsley, J. R., O’Malley, R., and Ojima, D. S. 2009. A Review of Climate-Change Adaptations Strategies For Wildlife Management and Biodiversity Conservation. Conservation Biology, 23(5), pp. 1080-1089. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01264.x

See Also

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